Table 4
Summary of material models used in the simulations.
| Component | Material model | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Wood (rails, and posts) | *MAT_WOOD_PINE | Orthotropic model for anisotropic and nonlinear wood behavior |
| Steel plates | *MAT_PIECEWISE_LINEAR_ PLASTICITY | Elastoplastic behavior under large deformations |
| Bolts | *MAT_PLASTIC_KINEMATIC | Beam elements with plasticity |
| Soil–post interaction | Nonlinear springs | Equivalent soil–structure interaction |
| Vehicle | Multi-material FE model | Validated TB32 vehicle model (LIER) |
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